Article 4 of the European media freedom act
a missed opportunity? Assessing its shortcomings in protecting journalistic sources
DOI :
https://doi.org/10.60054/PEU.2024.11.192-207Ключови думи :
EMFA, Article 4, Surveillance, Spyware, Journalism, Sources, SafetyАбстракт
Article 4 of the recently approved European Media Freedom Act (EMFA) aims, first and foremost, to protect journalists as well as safeguarding their sources by prohibiting or at the very least limiting the use of state surveillance technology. Despite its apparently good intentions, there are several potential loopholes and shortcomings of this Article which are laid out in this paper. To begin with, Article 4 essentially legalises the use of spyware in EU law, albeit under exceptional circumstances. In addition, the provision permitting the retrospective authorisation of spyware opens up the possibility of journalists’ rights being violated before the intervention of the law. The Article, furthermore, affords too much discretion for EU governments to deploy spyware. To compound matters, expanding the list of “serious crimes” to offences such as intellectual property theft and piracy is disproportionate when weighed against the fundamental rights at stake. The scope, moreover, includes crimes carrying a custodial sentence of5 years, as defined solely under national law, thus undermining the original purpose of EMFA, which is to harmonise national regulatory systems related to the media. Most concerning, however, is the loophole in this Article which fails to outlaw surveillance outsourcing to private entities. In sum, EMFA affords too much discretion forstates to deploy draconian surveillance measures that ultimately threaten journalistic sources. To conclude, recommendations are elaborated to overcome the limitations and risks previously analysed.
Литература (библиография)
Access Now. (2023, September 13).). Hacking Meduza: Pegasus spyware used to target Putin’s critic. https://www.accessnow.org/publication/hacking-meduza-pegasus-spyware-used-to-target-putins-critic/
Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld LLP. (2021). The Recast dual use regulation - a missed opportunity. https://www.akingump.com/en/insights/alerts/the-recast-dual-use-regulation-a-missed-opportunity
Bátorfi, A., Bleyer-Simon, K., Szabó, K., & Galambosi, E. (2022). Monitoring media pluralism in the digital era: Application of the Media Pluralism Monitor in the European Union, Albania, Montenegro, the Republic of North Macedonia, Serbia and Turkey in the year 2021. Country report: Hungary. Centre for Media Pluralism and Media Freedom (CMPF), Media Pluralism Monitor (MPM), Country Reports. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/74692
Bleyer-Simon, K., Brogi, E., Carlini, R., Da Costa Leitev Borges, D., Kermer, J. E., Nenadić, I., Palmer, M., Parcu, P. L., Trevisan, M., Verza, S., & Žuffová, M. (2024). Monitoring media pluralism in the digital era: Application of the media pluralism monitor in the European Union, Albania, Montenegro, the Republic of North Macedonia, Serbia and Turkey in the year 2023. European University Institute, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, Centre for Media Pluralism and Media Freedom (CMPF).
Bradshaw, P. (2020). Chilling Effect: Regional journalists’ source protection and information security practice in the wake of the Snowden and Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (RIPA) revelations. In Journalism, Citizenship and Surveillance Society (pp. 79–97). Routledge.
Brogi, E., Borges, D., Carlini, R., Nenadic, I., Bleyer-Simon, K., Kermer, J. E., Reviglio Della Venaria, U., Trevisan, M., & Verza, S. (2023). The European Media Freedom Act: Media freedom, freedom of expression and pluralism (Study PE 747.930). European Parliament, Policy Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs, Directorate-General for Internal Policies. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/75938
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. (2023). Why does the global spyware industry continue to thrive? Trends, explanations, and responses. https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2023/03/why-does-the-global-spyware-industry-continue-to-thrive-trends-explanations-and-responses?lang=en
Centre of Media Pluralism and Media Freedom (CMPF). (2024). EMFA in focus: towards a common regulatory framework to foster media pluralism? European University Institute. https://www.eui.eu/events?id=566849
Committee to Protect Journalists. (2023, September 22). Two Prague-based Russian journalists threatened, fear surveillance. https://cpj.org/2023/09/two-prague-based-russian-journalists-threatened-fear-surveillance/
Council of Europe. (1981). Convention for the Protection of Individuals with regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data (Convention 108). https://rm.coe.int/1680078b37
Council of Europe. (2016). Draft explanatory report - Convention 108 modernised [Report]. https://rm.coe.int/convention-for-the-protection-of-individuals-with-regard-toautomatic-/16806b6ec2
Council of Europe. (2023). Pegasus and similar spyware and secret state surveillance (Doc. 15825 Report). Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights (Rapporteur: Mr. Pieter Omtzigt). https://rm.coe.int/pegasus-and-similar-spyware-and-secret-state-surveillance/1680ac7f68
Council of Europe. (2024). Encryption in the age of surveillance. Commissioner for Human Rights. https://www.coe.int/en/web/commissioner/-/encryption-in-the-age-of-surveillance
Council of Europe - Safety of Journalists Platform. (2023). Safety of journalists. https://fom.coe.int/en/alerte/detail/107639877;globalSearch=false
Du Bois, R., & Reyes, A. T. (2023). Dual-use and cyber-surveillance: EU policies and current practices. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2023
European Court of Human Rights. (2022). Ekimdzhiev and Others v. Bulgaria (Application No. 70078/12). https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-214673
European Digital Rights (EDRi). (2023, October 3). Encryption in the age of surveillance - European Digital Rights (EDRi). https://edri.org/our-work/event-summary-encryption-in-the-age-of-surveillance/
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2017). Surveillance by intelligence services: Fundamental rights safeguards and remedies in the EU. Volume II: Field perspectives and legal update. Publications Office of the European Union. https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2017-surveillance-intelligence-servicesvol-2_en.pdf
Euractiv. (2024, March 14). EU Parliament passes European Media Freedom Act, concerns over spyware remain. https://www.euractiv.com/section/media/news/eu-parliament-passes-european-media-freedom-act-concerns-over-spyware-remain/
Euronews. (2024, March 13). Will the Brussels spyware scandal finally convince the EU to act? https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/03/13/will-the-brussels-spyware-scandal-finally-convince-the-eu-to-act
Feldstein, S., & Kot, B. (2023, March 1). Explaining the resilience of the global spyware and digital forensics industry. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Fowler, A. (2018). Shooting the Messenger: Criminalising Journalism (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315099927
Freedom House. (2023). Crime and punishment: the twin threats faced by journalists in Central America. https://freedomhouse.org/article/crime-and-punishment-twin-threats-faced-journalists-central-america
IPI. (2023). IPI position on the European Media Freedom Act. ipi.media. Retrieved May 28, 2024, from https://ipi.media/ipi-position-on-the-european-media-freedom-act/
Klimas, T., & Vaiciukaite, J. (2008, July 14). The law of recitals in European Community legislation. ILSA Journal of International & Comparative Law, 15. SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1159604
Luyten, K., & Rossi, A. (2022). Understanding the EU’s response to organised crime (Briefing No. PE 652.043). Parliamentary Research Service. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2020
PEGA Committee. (2023). The impact of Pegasus on fundamental rights and democratic processes (Study). European Parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2022
Phillips, R. (2023). The Efficacy of European Union Spyware Regulations [Master's thesis]. Virginia Tech. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/7ddfc7ac-400f-4690-8e52-cffec44dbc5b/content
Privacy International. (2018). The global surveillance industry. Retrieved May 28, 2024, from https://privacyinternational.org/explainer/1632/global-surveillance-industry
Riecke, L. (2023). Unmasking the term ‘dual use’ in EU spyware export control. European Journal of International Law, 34(3), 697–720. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chad039
Rozvukalne, A., & Skulte, I. (2024). Monitoring media pluralism in the digital era: Application of the media pluralism monitor in the European member states and in candidate countries in 2023. Country report: Latvia. Centre for Media Pluralism and Media Freedom (CMPF), EUI, RSC. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/77007
Sophie in ‘t Veld. (2023, May 22). European Parliament draft recommendation to the Council and the Commission following the investigation of alleged contraventions and maladministration in the application of Union law in relation to the use of Pegasus and equivalent surveillance spyware (B-9-2023-0260). European Parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/B-9-2023-0260_EN.html
Svátka, V., Adamčíková, J., & Sybera, A. (2024). Monitoring media pluralism in the digital era: Application of the media pluralism monitor in the European member states and in candidate countries in 2023. Country report: The Czech Republic. Centre for Media Pluralism and Media Freedom (CMPF), EUI, RSC. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/77020
Voorhoof, D. (2022, November 18). European Media Freedom Act and the protection of journalistic sources: still some way to go. The International Forum for Responsible Media Blog (Inforrm). https://inforrm.org/2022/11/18/european-media-freedom-act-and-the-protection-of-journalisticsources-still-some-way-to-go-dirk-voorhoof/
Wasserman, E. (2017). Safeguarding the News in the Era of Disruptive Sources. Journal of Media Ethics, 32(2), 72–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/23736992.2017.1294020
Woodhams, S. (2021). Spyware: An unregulated and escalating threat to independent media. Center for International Media Assistance. https://www.cima.ned.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/CIMA_Spyware-Report_web_150ppi.pdf
